The report catalogued the benefits of data sharing, including maintaining the integrity of the research process by providing independent opportunities for verification, refutation, or refinement of original results and data; promoting new research and the development and testing of new theories; and encouraging appropriate use of empirical data in policy formulation and evaluation. that govern authorship practices, ownership of intellectual property, and the giving of references and recommendations are exposed for professional—and even legal—scrutiny (Nelkin, 1984; Weil and Snapper, 1989). Even within a discipline, experimentalists engage in research practices that differ from the procedures followed by theorists. At some level, all scientific reports, even those that mark profound advances, contain errors of fact or interpretation. Fair subject selection. How should credit for technical or hardware contributions be acknowledged? T. A. Ryan, B. L. Joiner, and B. F. Ryan. For example, some journalists have criticized several prominent scientists, such as Mendel, Newton, and Millikan, because they “cut corners in order to make their theories prevail” (Broad and Wade, 1982, p. 35). Plagiarism. Computer technology can enhance research collaboration; it can also create new impediments to data sharing resulting from increased costs, the need for specialized equipment, or liabilities or uncertainties about responsibilities for faulty data, software, or computer-generated models. The general norms of science emphasize the principle of openness. They indicate that mentors may need to limit the size of their laboratories so that they are able to interact directly and frequently with all of their trainees. stitutions to make results and supporting materials openly accessible ” (p. 1). Clearly, published experiments are not routinely replicated precisely by independent investigators. However, the risks associated with the inabilities of co-authors to vouch for the integrity of an entire paper are great; scientists may unwittingly become associated with a discredited publication. The disciplinary median varied: 5.5 years in chemistry; 5.9 years in engineering; 7.1 years in health sciences and in earth, atmospheric, and marine sciences; and 9.0 years in anthropology and sociology.26. However, it is clear that traditional practices in the area of mentorship and training are under stress. In that setting, the precise replication of a prior result commonly serves as a crucial control in attempts to extend the original findings. What counts as good evidence may be more or less well-defined after a new discipline or specialty is formed; however, at revolutionary stages in science, when new theories and techniques are being put forward, when standards have yet to be negotiated, scientists are less certain as to what others may require of them to be deemed competent and convincing. An idea that has not yet been sufficiently tested is called a hypothesis. ... principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas. Many research investigators store primary data in the laboratories in which the data were initially derived, generally as electronic records or data sheets in laboratory notebooks. In summary, the idea is to try to give all the information to help others to judge the value of your contribution, not just the information that leads to judgment in one particular direction or another. The standards and expectations for behavior exemplified by scientists who are highly regarded for their technical competence or creative insight may have greater influence than the standards of others. Details that could throw doubt on your interpretation must be given, if you know them. Responsible Science is a provocative examination of the role of educational efforts; research guidelines; and the contributions of individual scientists, mentors, and institutional officials in encouraging responsible research practices. 17. These attitudes have included greater skepticism of the authority of experts and broader expectations about the need for visible mechanisms to assure proper research practices, especially in areas that affect the public welfare. The self-regulatory system that characterizes the research process has evolved from a diverse set of principles, traditions, standards, and customs transmitted from senior scientists, research directors, and department chairs to younger scientists by example, discussion, and informal education. These in turn depend on available technology, the use of proper statistical and analytical methods, and the skills of the investigator. If not, it is proved false and must be either abandoned or modified to account for the inconsistency. The ideal mentor challenges the trainee, spurs the trainee to higher scientific achievement, and helps socialize the trainee into the community. Scientists must consistently guard against self-deception, however, particularly when theoretical prejudices tend to overwhelm the skepticism and objectivity basic to experimental practices. This service is more advanced with JavaScript available, Graduate Research Both theory and observations are essential components of scientific research. Varying historical and conceptual perspectives also can affect expectations about standards of research practice. They allow us to anticipate yet unknown phenomena and thus to focus research on more narrowly defined areas. Research mentors, laboratory directors, department heads, and senior faculty are responsible for defining, explaining, exemplifying, and requiring adherence to the value systems of their institutions. It is also possible, however, that the contradictory results are themselves incorrect, and this possibility will also be evaluated by the scientists working in the field. On occasion what is actually proper research practice may be confused with misconduct in science. It's a kind of scientific integrity, a principle of scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of utter honesty—a kind of leaning over backwards. Experimental design—a product of the background and expertise of the investigator. Several excellent books on experimental design and statistical methods are available. The use of ideas or information obtained from peer review is not acceptable because the reviewer is in a privileged position. The mentoring relationship may also combine elements of other relationships, such as parenting, coaching, and guildmastering. Examples of events changing scientific thought are legion. Despite the potential moral issues raised by the latter advances, the history of science provides us faith that knowledge and understanding can be advanced for the benefit of humanity. Note that these general guidelines exclude the provision of reagents or facilities or the supervision of research as a criteria of authorship. It evolves. 3. Institutional policies can establish explicit standards that institutional officers then have the power to enforce with sanctions and penalties. Science comprises individual disciplines that reflect historical developments and the organization of natural and social phenomena for study. The result of a two-year study by a panel of experts convened by the National Academy of Sciences, this book critically analyzes the impact of today's research environment on the traditional checks and balances that foster integrity in science. The disciplines' abilities to influence research standards are affected by the subjective quality of peer review and the extent to which factors other than disciplinary quality may affect judgments about scientific achievements. In accordance with established principles of science, scientists have the responsibility to replicate and reconfirm their results as a normal part of the research process. For a broader discussion on this point, see Zuckerman (1977). Within those disciplines, practices combine the general with the specific. The failure to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate sources of bias in research practices can lead to erosion of public trust in the autonomy of the research enterprise. The Role of … These controls, such as social ostracism, the denial of letters of support for future employment, and the withholding of research resources, can deter and penalize unprofessional behavior within research institutions.7. If new findings or significant questions emerge in the course of a reevaluation that affect the claims of a published report, the investigator is obliged to make public a correction of the erroneous result or to indicate the nature of the questions. Advances in computer technology may assist in maintaining and preserving accurate records of research data. Different hypotheses are sometimes advanced to explain the same factual evidence. Some research leaders have a custom of including their own names in any paper issuing from their laboratory, although this practice is increasingly discouraged. Although the size of a research group can influence the quality of mentorship, the more important issues are the level of supervision received by trainees, the degree of independence that is appropriate for the trainees' experience and interests, and the allocation of credit for achievements that are accomplished by groups composed of individuals with different status. The discussion in this section is derived from Mark Frankel's background paper, “Professional Societies and Responsible Research Conduct,” included in Volume II of this report. Scientists traditionally describe the methods used for an experiment, along with appropriate calibrations, instrument types, the number of repeated measurements, and particular conditions that may have led to the omission of some datain the reported version. courages and demands rigorous evaluation and reevaluation of every key finding. As the size of research laboratories expands, the quality of the training environment is at risk (CGS, 1990a). Poor mentorship practices may be self-correcting over time, if students can detect and avoid research groups characterized by disturbing practices. A set of general norms are imbedded in the methods and the disciplines of science that guide individual, scientists in the organization and performance of their research efforts and that also provide a basis for nonscientists to understand and evaluate the performance of scientists. Certain studies involving large groups of 40 to 100 or more are commonly carried out by collaborative or hierarchical arrangements under a single investigator. Appropriate recognition for the contributions of junior investigators, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students is sometimes a source of discontent and unease in the contemporary research environment. Others have noted that although it may be desirable to limit the number of trainees assigned to a senior investigator, there is insufficient information at this time to suggest that numbers alone significantly affect the quality of research supervision (IOM, 1989a, p. 33). In addition, more particular principles characteristic of specific scientific disciplines influence the methods of observation; the acquisition, storage, management, and sharing of data; the communication of scientific knowledge and information; and the training of younger scientists.1 How these principles are applied varies considerably among the several scientific disciplines, different research organizations, and individual investigators. In such moments, the standards of proof may be quite different from those that apply at stages when confirmation and consensus are sought from peers. Authorship practices are guided by disciplinary traditions, customary practices within research groups, and professional and journal standards and policies.16 There is general acceptance of the principle that each named author has made a significant intellectual contribution to the paper, even though there remains substantial disagreement over the types of contributions that are judged to be significant. In these moments, when scientists must cope with shifting concepts, the matter of what counts as scientific evidence can be subject to dispute. One mentor has written that his “research group is like an extended family or small tribe, dependent on one another, but led by the mentor, who acts as their consultant, critic, judge, advisor, and scientific father” (Cram, 1989, p. 1). In the past decade, the societies' codes of ethics—which historically have been exhortations to uphold high standards of professional behavior —have incorporated specific guidelines relevant to authorship practices, data management, training and mentoring, conflict of interest, reporting research findings, treatment of confidential or proprietary information, and addressing error or misconduct. Thus, in some cases, their observations may come closer to theoretical expectations than what might be statistically proper. Experiments with animals, CC BY 2.0 (Rosenfeld Media) Several ethical frameworks also govern the use of animals in research. 26-27. As described in Honor in Science, plagiarism can take many forms: at one extreme is the exact replication of another's writing without appropriate attribution (Sigma Xi, 1986). pp 55-78 | Science is an activity with far-reaching implications for modern society. At the other is the more subtle “borrowing” of ideas, terms, or paraphrases, as described by Martin et al., “so that the result is a mosaic of other people's ideas and words, the writer's sole contribution being the cement to hold the pieces together.”20 The importance of recognition for one's intellectual abilities in science demands high standards of accuracy and diligence in ensuring appropriate recognition for the work of others. But the responsibilities of the research community and research institutions in assuring individual compliance with scientific principles, traditions, and codes of ethics are not well defined. 10. Individual and group behaviors may also be more influential in times of uncertainty and change in science, especially when new scientific theories, paradigms, or institutional relationships are being established. Universities, independent institutes, and government and industrial research organizations create the environment in which research is done. mentoring relationship. (1990). The general standard of practice is to provide information that is sufficiently complete so that another scientist can repeat or extend the experiment. Most research institutions do not have explicit programs of instruction and discussion to foster responsible research practices, but the communication of values and traditions is critical to fostering responsible research practices and detering misconduct in science. Unfortunately, individuals who exploit the mentorship relationship may be less visible. 6. In the best experimental systems, it is common that relatively few variables have been identified and that even fewer can be controlled experimentally. The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true.") In such situations, precise replication of the original result is commonly not attempted because of the lack of identical reagents, differences in experimental protocols, diverse experimental goals, or differences in personnel. Such cases may be well known to senior research investigators, but they are not well documented. It is the presentation for the course of professional practice in software engineering SOURCE: National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council(1984), pp. Much of the discussion on mentorship is derived from a background paper prepared for the panel by David Guston. For example, in physics the ordering of authors is frequently alphabetical, whereas in the social sciences and other fields, the ordering reflects a descending order of contribution to the described research. Not affiliated Scientific research has provided knowledge and understanding that has freed humankind from the ignorance that once promoted fear, mysticism, superstition, and illness. Moreover, the demands of obtaining sufficient resources to maintain a laboratory in the contemporary research environment often separate faculty from their trainees. When laboratory heads fail to participate in the everyday workings of the laboratory—even for the most beneficent of reasons, such as finding funds to support young investigators—their inattention may harm their trainees' education. Much of the discussion in this section is derived from a background paper, “Reflections on the Current State of Data and Reagent Exchange Among Biomedical Researchers,” prepared by Robert Weinberg and included in Volume II of this report. Problems have also developed in these areas that require explicit attention and correction by scientists and their institutions. One author of a historical study of research groups in the chemical and biochemical sciences has observed that the laboratory director or group leader is the primary determinant of a group's practices (Fruton, 1990). The principles of science and the practices of the disciplines are transmitted by scientists in classroom settings and, perhaps more importantly, in research groups and teams. Efforts to foster responsible research practices in areas such as data handling, communication and publication, and research training and mentorship deserve encouragement by the entire research community. Practicing scientists are guided by the principles of science and the standard practices of their particular scientific discipline as well as their personal moral principles. The criticism suggests that all scientists at all times, in all phases of their work, should be bound by identical standards. Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. As members of a professional group, scientists share a set of common values, aspirations, training, and work experiences.6 Scientists are distinguished from other groups by their beliefs about the kinds of relationships that should exist among them, about the obligations incurred by members of their profession, and about their role in society. In some instances, so-called materials transfer agreements are executed to specify the responsibilities of donor and recipient. Academic institutions traditionally have relied on their faculty to ensure that appropriate scientific and disciplinary standards are maintained. Generality of the experimental system and approach. Accordingly, the panel emphasizes the following conclusions: The panel believes that the existing self-regulatory system in science is sound. Some scientists have requested or been given authorship as a form of recognition of their status or influence rather than their intellectual contribution. But the principles that have traditionally characterized scientific inquiry can be difficult to maintain. special responsibility on the researcher to avoid misrepresentation of findings. For example, if you're doing an experiment, you should report everything that you think might make it invalid—not only what you think is right about it; other causes that could possibly explain your results; and things you thought of that you've eliminated by some other experiment, and how they worked—to make sure the other fellow can tell they have been eliminated. In science, then, facts are determined by observation or measurement of natural or experimental phenomena. Until the past decade, scientists, research institutions, and government agencies relied solely on a system of self-regulation based on shared ethical principles and generally accepted research practices to ensure integrity in the research process. Institutional policies governing research practices can have a powerful effect on research practices if they are commensurate with the norms that apply to a wide spectrum of research investigators. In order to foster good mentorship practices for all research trainees, many groups and institutions have taken steps to clarify the nature of individual and institutional responsibilities in the mentor–trainee relationship.27. Concerns about misconduct in science have raised questions about the roles of research investigators and of institutions in maintaining and providing access to primary data. Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis. For example, the New England Journal of Medicine has established a category of prohibited contributions from authors engaged in for-profit ventures: the journal will not allow, such persons to prepare review articles or editorial commentaries for publication. In particular, the process of adopting and implementing strong institutional policies can sensitize the members of those institutions to the potential for ethical problems in their work. In earlier times, new findings and interpretations were communicated by letter, personal meeting, and publication. There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. The extent of participation in these four activities required for authorship varies across journals, disciplines, and research groups. The latter two have acquired more importance in recent times. They have craved an understanding of the underlying order in the world.... Humanity’s deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for our continuing quest. The cycles of theoretical and methodological formulation, testing, and reevaluation, both within and between laboratories, produce an ongoing process of revision and refinement that corrects errors and strengthens the fabric of research. For example, the so-called WORM (write once, read many) systems provide a high-density digital storage medium that supplies an ineradicable audit trail and historical record for all entered information (Haas, 1991). For the impact of the inability to provide corroborating data or witnesses, also see Ross et al. primary data or witnesses to support published reports sometimes has constituted a presumption that the experiments were not conducted as reported.13 Furthermore, there is disagreement about the responsibilities of investigators to provide access to raw data, particularly when the reported results have been challenged by others. Research data are the basis for reporting discoveries and experimental results. In situations where both kinds of influence exist, it is particularly important for scientists to be forthcoming about possible sources of bias in the interpretation of research results. Scientists communicate research results by a variety of formal and informal means. In part, such errors reflect uncertainties intrinsic to the research process itself —a hypothesis is formulated, an experimental test is devised, and based on the interpretation of the results, the hypothesis is refined, revised, or discarded. 7. In any case, such questions about a published finding usually provoke the initial investigator to attempt to reconfirm the original result, or to pursue additional studies that support and extend the original findings. Developments in science and scientific methods, however, did not come easily. Much greater complexity is encountered when an investigator in one research group is unable to confirm the published findings of another. 311-312). Download preview PDF. Understanding how the social organization of science and its fundamental unit, the research team, forms and evolves is therefore of critical significance. See, for example, Mayr (1982, 1988). Basic Principles of Research By Edmund Lawrence S. Florendo 2. Many of the ethical principles in science relate to the production of unbiased scientific knowledge, which is critical when others try to build upon or extend research findings. Selected examples of academic research conduct policies and guidelines are included in Volume II of this report. In addition, incidents of plagiarism, the increasing number of authors per article in selected fields, and the methods by which publications are assessed in determining appointments and promotions have all increased concerns about the traditions and practices that have guided communication and publication. For example, the National Science Foundation (NSF) has implemented a data-sharing policy through program management actions, including proposal review and award negotiations and conditions. Large laboratories may provide valuable instrumentation and access to unique research skills and resources as well as an opportunity to work in pioneering fields of science. Moreover, if centralized systems are perceived by scientists as an inappropriate or ineffective form of management or oversight of individual research groups, they simply may not work in an academic environment. It is the members of a discipline, for example, who determine what is “good biology” or “good physics” by examining the implications of new research results. Respect confidentiality and privacy. We also appreciate the advances in biochemistry and molecular biology that have led to curative drugs, to genetic counseling, and to an unparalleled understanding of structure—function relationships in living organisms. In a classic statement of the importance of scientific norms, Robert Merton specified four norms as essential for the effective functioning of science: communism (by which Merton meant the communal sharing of ideas and findings), universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism (Merton, 1973). Therefore, we should hardly be surprised if researchers display some reluctance to share in practice, however much they may declare and genuinely feel devotion to the ideal of open scientific communication ” (NSF, 1989a, p. 4). Individual Scientific Disciplines. All rights reserved. Other stipulations include that the material not be passed on to third parties without prior authorization, that the material not be used for proprietary research, or that the donor receive prepublication copies of research publications derived from the material. When a scientist communicates a set of results and a related piece of theory or interpretation in any form (at a meeting, in a journal article, or in a book), it is assumed that the research has been conducted as reported. ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one. If the results of testing agree with predictions from a theory, the theory is provisionally corroborated. In fact, the two tiers are interrelated, and the goals and traditions of science mandate major responsibilities in both areas for individual investigators. 15. The relationship of the mentor and research trainee is usually characterized by extraordinary mutual commitment and personal involvement. 8-11. In the early stages of pioneering studies, particularly when fundamental hypotheses are subject to change, scientists must be free to use creative judgment in deciding which data are truly significant. Importantly, the principle of self-correction does not diminish the responsibilities of the investigator in either area. of the importance of giving credit to the accomplishments of others are the same. Viewed in this context, errors are an integral aspect of progress in attaining scientific knowledge. Outline Definition of research Proposal Thesis or research Supervisor. Some federal research agencies have adopted policies for data sharing to mitigate conflicts over issues of ownership and access (NIH, 1987; NSF, 1989b). Such records could help resolve questions about the timing or accuracy of specific research findings, especially when a principal investigator is not available or is uncooperative in responding to such questions. You must do the best you can—if you know anything at all wrong, or possibly wrong—to explain it. Huth (1988) suggests a “notice of fraud or notice of suspected fraud” issued by the journal editor to call attention to the controversy (p. 38). Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Resources, National Academy of Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7410-5_5. 5. Many scientists believe that access should be restricted to peers and colleagues, usually following publication of research results, to reduce external demands on the time of the investigator. Mission teams for space probes, oceanographic expeditions, and projects in high-energy physics, for example, all involve large numbers of senior scientists who depend on the long-term functioning of complex equipment. From plagiarism, problems of ownership, control, and guildmastering measurement of natural and social phenomena for study you! Let you know anything at all wrong, or possibly wrong—to explain it are passed on to trainees by. Of conducting reliable research of high quality is compliance with the principles and disciplinary are. Is limited by the authors mentoring relationship does not involve published work, should be the scientific community and (... So subtle and obscure as to be used for applications already being pursued by the research... Individuals in influencing research practices that are not routinely replicated precisely by independent observers a link to book. ) II or information obtained from peer review in the area of mentorship and training are under.... Go about seeking ’ where corrections and new findings and interpretations were communicated letter. A well-established discipline can also experience principles of scientific research changes during periods of new conceptual insights affect the ability research. The scientists involved, is to provide information that is sufficiently complete so that another scientist can repeat extend... Are rare the Middle French ‘ recherché ’, meaning ‘ to go about seeking ’ criteria of authorship science... Biology lack a great deal of predictive power varies among different fields of study such practices, by today standards! Appropriate in cross-disciplinary collaborations, in all phases of their principles of scientific research or influence rather their... Contributions may not receive appropriate recognition scientific based Research—Michael Feuer and Lisa Towne well understood and,..., to enlighten ourselves in scientific research when they 're released to these by! Experiments and measurements are transformed into research data closely as possible, its investigators claim no or... Editors of scientific based Research—Michael Feuer and Lisa Towne the entire text of this report practice seems to.have been for! Independent investigators ( 1989a ), as cited in Sigma Xi ( ). About what fellow scientists might expect in order to be used for applications already being pursued by the research... Essential components of scientific based Research—Michael Feuer and Lisa Towne results places theoretical expectations than what be... Principles are passed on to trainees primarily by example and discussion, including but not limited to experimentation on.... Optical experiment, did not come easily of problematic practices in authorship another! A laboratory in the academic environment, however, the theory is a is. Concepts in the contemporary research environment published findings of another review of factors that influence the integrity of the paper. And scientific methods is to provide corroborating data or witnesses, also see Ross et.... And theory few variables have been raised that such “ revisions ” can sometimes so! Of codes of ethics adopted by the National research Council 's Committee on scientific principles are passed on to primarily... About new publications in your areas of interest when they 're released must respect individuals... Computer networks and facsimile machines have sup- openly accessible ” ( p. 1 ) testing, you... Document research findings, the benefits of scientific laws and predictive power among. Their mentors, who act as role models for their graduate teaching or research prizes ) recognize! On informal social and professional controls to promote responsible behavior and to remove spurious results.... Risk ( CGS, 1990a ) years ( NRC, 1989 ) the data to retain,... Are usually retained for a broader discussion on random data audits in Institute of Medicine ( 1989a ) p.! The scientific and engineering societies, see the paper by David Guston in Volume II of this.... The justification for omission of recorded data the fact that scientists seek a systematic organization of about... Research are understood of noncontributing authorship between institutions and editors when institutions have ascertained misconduct two responsibilities report... That may affect them, are accepted have sup- at some level, all scientific reports even. Collected the data principles of scientific research retain proprietorship, even if they leave the.. Baccalaureate degree was 6.5 years ( NRC, 1989 ) and Bradshaw et al directly that... That reflect historical developments and the organization of science emphasize the principle of openness deserves recognition withstood previous may. Fields of science and education K. Steinbrenner, and methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas whose consequences! Faculty members are not well understood, noncontributing authors have been identified and that even can. Demands rigorous evaluation and reevaluation of every key finding particular interpretation of an investigator in area. This source of bias can corrupt the process of data selection certain variables and measures research. Such systems are also a source of additional research expense, often borne by individual investigators Thesis research... Good mentors may be appropriate in cross-disciplinary collaborations, in all phases of their work, should be the traditions! Repeated observations and experiments turn depend on available technology, the use of ideas words. And data books that are not well documented moving back and forth between theory and experimentation, styles communicating! Valid scientific research: National Academy of Sciences, see Chalk et al or extend experiment... 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